Can. J. Zool. 87(11): 1069–1086 (2009)  |  doi:10.1139/Z09-099  |  Published by NRC Research Press / Publié par les Presses scientifiques du CNRC  

Spring migration routes and chronology of surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata): a synthesis of Pacific coast studies

S.E.W. De La Cruz, J. Y. Takekawa, M. T. Wilson, D. R. Nysewander, J. R. Evenson, D. Esler, W. S. Boyd, and D. H. Ward

Abstract: Understanding interconnectivity among wintering, stopover, and breeding areas of migratory birds is pivotal to discerning how events occurring in each might have a cross-seasonal effect on another. Such information can guide the location and timing of conservation efforts. Thus, we examined spring migration routes, chronology, and stopover use of 85 surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata (L., 1758)) marked with satellite transmitters at four Pacific Flyway wintering sites: San Quintin Bay, Baja California; San Francisco Bay, California; Puget Sound, Washington; and Strait of Georgia, British Columbia. Eighty-three percent of marked scoters followed two main routes to the breeding area: a Southern Inland route involving staging in Puget Sound and Strait of Georgia and protracted inland migration, or a Northern Coastal route characterized by short movements along the Pacific coast of British Columbia and southeast Alaska with inland migration initiating from Lynn Canal and surrounding areas. Route choice was related to nesting site latitude in the Canadian Northern Boreal Forest. Data from birds tracked over 2 years indicated strong migration route fidelity, but altered chronology and stopover locations between years. Departure date varied by wintering site, but arrival and apparent settling dates were synchronous, suggesting individuals adjusted migration timing to meet an optimized reproductive schedule.

Résumé : La compréhension de l’interconnectivité entre les zones d’hivernage, d’arrêt et de reproduction chez les oiseaux migrateurs est essentielle si l’on veut voir comment les événements qui se passent dans chacune de ces zones peuvent avoir un effet lors d’une autre saison dans une autre zone. De telles informations pourraient orienter le choix des sites et du moment des interventions de conservation. Nous avons ainsi examiné les routes printanières de migration, leur chronologie et l’utilisation des points d’arrêt chez 85 macreuses à front blanc (Melanitta perspicillata (L., 1758)) munies d’émetteurs satellites à quatre sites d’hivernage sur la route de migration du Pacifique, la baie de San Quintin en Basse-Californie, la baie de San Francisco en Californie, Puget Sound au Washington et le détroit de Géorgie en Colombie-Britannique. Quatre-vingt trois pourcent des macreuses marquées suivent deux voies principales vers la zone de reproduction, une route du sud dans l’intérieur des terres comportant des arrêts à Puget Sound et au détroit de Géorgie avec une migration prolongée à l’intérieur des terres et une route côtière du nord caractérisée par de courts déplacements le long de la côte de la Colombie-Britannique et du sud-est de l’Alaska et une migration à l’intérieur des terres débutant au canal de Lynn et les environs. Le choix de route dépend de la latitude du site de nidification dans la forêt boréale du nord du Canada. Des données obtenues d’oiseaux marqués au cours de deux années indiquent une forte fidélité à la route de migration, mais la chronologie de la migration et les sites d’arrêt peuvent changer d’une année à l’autre. La date de départ varie en fonction du site d’hivernage, mais les dates d’arrivée et d’installation apparente sont synchronisées, ce qui laisse croire que les individus ajustent la chronologie de leur migration afin d’obtenir un calendrier optimal de reproduction.

[Traduit par la Rédaction]

Alerstam, T., and Lindström, Å. 1990. Optimal bird migration: the relative importance of time, energy and safety. In Bird migration: physiology and ecophysiology. Edited by E. Gwinner. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. pp. 331–351.

Alerstam, T., Hake, M., and Kjellén, N. 2006. Temporal and spatial patterns of repeated migratory journeys by ospreys. Anim. Behav. 71(3): 555–566.

Anderson, E.M., Lovvorn, J.R., and Wilson, M.T. 2008. Reevaluating marine diets of surf and white-winged scoters: interspecific differences and the importance of soft-bodied prey. Condor, 110(2): 285–295.

Anderson, E.M., Lovvorn, J.R., Esler, D., Boyd, W.S., and Stick, K.C. 2009. Using predator distributions, diet, and condition to evaluate seasonal foraging sites: sea ducks and herring spawn. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 386: 287–302.

Atkinson, P.W., Baker, A.J., Bevan, R.M., Clark, N.A., Cole, K.B., Gonzalez, P.M., Newton, J., Niles, L.J., and Robinson, R.A. 2005. Unravelling the migration and moult strategies of a long-distance migrant using stable isotopes: Red Knot Calidris canutus movements in the Americas. Ibis, 147(4): 738–749.

Bauer, S., Van Dinther, M., Høgda, K.-A., Klaassen, M., and Madsen, J. 2008. The consequences of climate-driven stop-over sites changes on migration schedules and fitness of Arctic geese. J. Anim. Ecol. 77(4): 654–660.

Bellrose, F.C. 1980. Ducks, geese, and swans of North America. A Wildlife Management Institute Book, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa.

Berthold, P., Bossche, W., Jakubiec, Z., Kaatz, C., Kaatz, M., and Querner, U. 2002. Long-term satellite tracking sheds light upon variable migration strategies of White Storks (Ciconia ciconia). J. Ornithol. 143(4): 489–495.

Bishop, M.A., and Green, S.P. 2001. Predation on Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) spawn by birds in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Fish. Oceanogr. 10(Suppl. 1): 149–158.

Black, J.M., Prop, J., and Larsson, K. 2007. Wild goose dilemmas: population consequences of individual decisions in barnacle geese. Branta Press, Groningen, the Netherlands.

Brinkhof, M.W.G., Cavé, A.J., Hage, F.J., and Verhulst, S. 1993. Timing of reproduction and fledging success in the coot Fulica atra: evidence for a causal relationship. J. Anim. Ecol., 62(3): 577–587.

Calbick, K.S., McAllister, R., Marshall, D., and Litke Fraser, S. 2004. River Basin case study, British Columbia, Canada. A report to the Agriculture and Rural Development Department at the World Bank, Washington, D.C.

California Department of Fish and Game. 2005. Summary of the 2004–2005 Pacific herring commercial fisheries in San Francisco Bay. CDFG Marine Region, Bodega Bay, Calif.

Catry, P., Encarnação, V., Araũjo, A., Fearon, P., Fearon, A., Armelin, M., and Delaloye, P. 2004. Are long-distance migrant passerines faithful to their stopover sites? J. Avian Biol. 35(2): 170–181.

Cotton, P.A. 2003. Avian migration phenology and global climate change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100(21): 12219–12222.

Dalhaug, L., Tombre, I.M., and Erikstad, K.E. 1996. Seasonal decline in clutch size of the Barnacle Goose in Svalbard. Condor, 98(1): 42–47.

Douglas, D.C. 2006. PC-SAS Argos Filter V7.03 Software Documentation. U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Biological Science Center, Anchorage, Alaska, USA. Available from http://alaska.usgs.gov/science/biology/spatial/douglas.html [accessed 11 July 2008].

Drent, R.H., Both, C., Green, M., Madsen, J., and Piersma, T. 2003. Pay-offs and penalties of competing migratory schedules. Oikos, 103(2): 274–292.

Drent, R.H., Fox, A.D., and Stahl, J. 2006. Travelling to breed. J. Ornithol. 147(2): 122–134.

Drent, R.H., Eichhorn, G., Flagstad, A., Van der Graaf, A.J., Litvin, K.E., and Stahl, J. 2007. Migratory connectivity in Arctic geese: spring stopovers are the weak links in meeting targets for breeding. J. Ornithol. 148(Suppl. 2): S510–S514.

Drever, M.C., and Clark, R.G. 2007. Spring temperature, clutch initiation date and duck nest success: a test of the mismatch hypothesis. J. Anim. Ecol. 76(1): 139–148.

Eadie, J.M., Mallory, M.L., and Lumsden, H.G. 1995. Common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula). In The birds of North America online. Edited by A. Poole. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, N.Y. Available from http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/170 [accessed 01 October 2008].

Farmer, A.H., and Wiens, J.A. 1998. Optimal migration schedules depend on the landscape and the physical environment: a dynamic modeling view. J. Avian Biol. 29(4): 405–415.

Farmer, A.H., and Wiens, J.A. 1999. Models and reality: time–energy trade-offs in Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos) migration. Ecology, 80: 2566–2580.

Gauthier, G., Bety, J., and Hobson, K.A. 2003. Are Greater Snow Geese capital breeders? New evidence from a stable-isotope model. Ecology, 84(12): 3250–3264.

Gill, J.A., Norris, K., Potts, P.M., Gunnarsson, T.G., Atkinson, P.W., and Sutherland, W.J. 2001. The buffer effect and large-scale population regulation in migratory birds. Nature (London), 412(6845): 436–438.

Goudie, R.I., Brault, S., Conant, B., Kondratyev, A.V., Petersen, M.R., and Vermeer, K. 1994. The status of sea ducks in the north Pacific Rim: toward their conservation and management. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 59: 27–49.

Haegele, C.W., and Schweigert, J.F. 1985. Distribution and characteristics of herring spawning grounds and description of spawning behavior. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42(Suppl. 1): S39–S55.

Harley, C.D., Randall Hughes, A., Hultgren, K.M., Miner, B.G., Sorte, C.J.B., Thornber, C.S., Rodriguez, L.F., Tomanek, L., and Williams, S.L. 2006. The impacts of climate change in coastal marine systems. Ecol. Lett. 9(2): 228–241.

Hodges, J.I., King, J.G., Conant, B., and Hanson, H.A. 1996. Aerial surveys of waterbirds in Alaska 1957–94: population trends and observer variability. Information and Technology Report 4, U.S. Department of the Interior (USDOI), National Biological Service, Washington, D.C.

Hupp, J.W., Ruhl, G.A., Pearce, J.M., Mulcahy, D.M., and Tomeo, M.A. 2003. Effects of implanted radiotransmitters with percutaneous antennas on the behavior of Canada geese. J. Field Ornithol. 74: 250–256.

Hupp, J.W., Schmutz, J.A., and Ely, C.R. 2006. The prelaying interval of emperor geese on the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Condor, 108(4): 912–924.

Iverson, S.A., Esler, D., and Boyd, W.S. 2003. Plumage characteristics as an indicator of age class in the surf scoter. Waterbirds, 26(1): 56–61.

Iverson, S.A., Boyd, W.S., Esler, D., Mulcahy, D.M., and Bowman, T.D. 2006. Comparison of the effects and performance of four types of radiotransmitters for use with scoters. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 34(3): 656–663.

Kaiser, G.W., Derocher, A.E., Crawford, S., Gill, M.J., and Manley, I.A. 1995. A capture technique for marbled murrelets in coastal inlets. J. Field Ornithol. 66: 321–333.

Kirk, M.K., Esler, D., and Boyd, W.S. 2007. Foraging effort of surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata) wintering in a spatially and temporally variable prey landscape. Can. J. Zool. 85(12): 1207–1215.

Kirk, M.K., Esler, D., Iverson, S.A., and Boyd, W.S. 2008. Movements of wintering surf scoters: predator responses to different prey landscapes. Oecologia (Berl.), 155(4): 859–867.

Klaassen, M., Abraham, K.F., Jefferies, R.L., and Vrtiska, M. 2006. Factors affecting the site of investment, and the reliance on savings for arctic breeders: the capital-income dichotomy revisited. Ardea, 94: 371–384.

Korschgen, C.E., Kenow, K.P., Gendron-Fitzpatrick, A., Green, W.L., and Dein, F.J. 1996. Implanting intra-abdominal radio transmitters with external whip antennas in ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 60(1): 132–137.

Lewis, T., Esler, D., and Boyd, W.S. 2007. Foraging behaviors of surf scoters and white-winged scoters during spawning of pacific herring. Condor, 109(1): 216–222.

Lind, J. 2004. What determines probability of surviving predator attacks in bird migration?: the relative importance of vigilance and fuel load. J. Theor. Biol. 231(2): 223–227.

Lok, E.K. 2008. Site use and migration of scoters (Melanitta spp.) in relation to the spawning of Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi). M.S. thesis, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C.

Marra, P.P., Hobson, K.A., and Holmes, R.T. 1998. Linking winter and summer events in a migratory bird by using stable-carbon isotopes. Science (Washington, D.C.), 282(5395): 1884–1886.

Mather, D.D., and Esler, D. 1999. Evaluation of bursal depth as an indicator of age class of harlequin ducks. J. Field Ornithol. 70: 200–205.

Mehlman, D.W., Mabey, S.E., Ewert, D.N., Duncan, C., Abel, B., Cimprich, D., Sutter, R.D., and Woodrey, M. 2005. Conserving stopover sites for forest-dwelling migratory landbirds. Auk, 122(4): 1281–1290.

Miller, M.R., Takekawa, J.Y., Fleskes, J.P., Orthmeyer, D.L., Casazza, M.L., and Perry, W.M. 2005. Spring migration of northern pintails from California’s Central Valley wintering area tracked with satellite telemetry: routes, timing, and destinations. Can. J. Zool. 83(10): 1314–1332.

Mosbech, A., Gilchrist, G., Merkel, F., Sonne, C., Flagstad, A., and Nyegaard, H. 2006. Year-round movements of Northern Common Eiders Somateria mollilssima borealis breeding in Arctic Canada and West Greenland followed by satellite telemetry. Ardea, 94: 651–665.

Mulcahy, D.M., and Esler, D. 1999. Surgical and immediate post-release mortality of harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) implanted with abdominal radio transmitters with percutaneous antennae. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 30(3): 397–401.

Newton, I. 2004. Population limitation in migrants. Ibis, 146(2): 197–226.

Newton, I. 2006. Can conditions experienced during migration limit the population levels of birds? J. Ornithol. 147(2): 146–166.

Nilsson, L., and Persson, H. 1994. Factors affecting the breeding performance of a marked greylag goose Anser anser population in south Sweden. Wildfowl, 45: 33–48.

Nysewander, D.R., Evenson, J.R., Murphie, B.L., and Cyra, T.A. 2003. Trends observed for selected marine bird species during 1993–2002 winter aerial surveys, conducted by the PSAMP Bird Component in the Inner Marine Waters of Washington State. In Proceedings of the 2003 Georgia Basin/Puget Sound Research Conference: Vancouver, B.C., 31 March – 3 April 2003. Edited by Toni Droscher and David A. Fraser.

Olsen, G.H., Dein, F.J., Haramis, G.M., and Jorde, D.G. 1992. Implanting radiotransmitters in wintering canvasbacks. J. Wildl. Manage. 56(2): 325–328.

Pearce, J.M., Talbot, S.L., Petersen, M.R., and Rearick, J.R. 2005. Limited genetic differentiation among breeding, molting, and wintering groups of the threatened Steller’s eider: the role of historic and contemporary factors. Conserv. Genet. 6(5): 743–757.

Piersma, T. 1987. Hop, skip, or jump? Constraints on migration of Arctic waders by feeding, fattening, and flight speed. Limosa, 60: 185–194.

Piersma, T. 2003. “Coastal” versus “inland” shorebird species: interlinked fundamental dichotomies between their life and demographic histories? Wader Study Group Bull. 100: 5–9.

Pomeroy, A.C., Acevedo Seaman, D.A., Butler, R.W., Elner, R.W., Williams, T.D., and Ydenberg, R.C. 2008. Feeding-danger trade-offs underlie stopover selection by migrants. Avian Conserv. Ecol. 3(1): 7–23.

Prop, J., Black, J.M., and Shimmings, P. 2003. Travel schedules to the high arctic: barnacle geese trade-off the timing of migration with accumulation of fat deposits. Oikos, 103(2): 403–414.

Rohwer, F.C. 1992. The evolution of reproductive patterns in waterfowl. In Ecology and management of breeding waterfowl. Edited by B.D.J. Batt, A.D. Afton, M.G. Anderson, C.D. Ankney, D.H. Johnson, J.A. Kadlec, and G.L. Krapu. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. pp. 486–539.

Rotella, J.J., Howerter, D.W., Sankowski, T.P., and Devries, J.H. 1993. Nesting effort by wild mallards with three types of radio transmitters. J. Wildl. Manage. 57(4): 690–695.

SAS Institute Inc. 2005. SAS. Version 9.1 [computer program]. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, N.C.

Savard, J.P.L., Bordage, D., and Reed, A. 1998. Surf Scoter (Melanitta perspicillata). In The birds of North America. No. 363. Edited by A. Poole and F. Gill. The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa.

Schamber, J.L., Esler, D., and Flint, P.L. 2009. Evaluating the validity of using unverified indices of body condition. J. Avian Biol. 40(1): 49–56.

Schmaljohann, H., and Dierschke, V. 2005. Optimal bird migration and predation risk: a field experiment with northern wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe. J. Anim. Ecol. 74(1): 131–138.

Schmutz, J.A., Hobson, K.A., and Morse, J.A. 2006. An isotopic assessment of protein from diet and endogenous stores: effects on egg production and incubation behaviour of geese. Ardea, 94: 385–397.

Skagen, S.K., and Knopf, F.L. 1994. Residency patterns of migrating sandpipers at a midcontinental stopover. Condor, 96(4): 949–958.

Stewart, R.B., Wheaton, E., and Spittlehouse, D.L. 1998. Climate change: implications for the Boreal forest. In Emerging Air Issues for the 21st Century: The Need for Multidisciplinary Management. Proceedings of a Specialty Conference, Calgary, Alta., 22–24 September 1997. Edited by A.H. Legge and L.L. Jones. Air and Waste Management Assoc., Pittsburg, Pa. pp. 86–101.

Stick, K.C. 2005. 2004 Washington State herring stock status report. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Fish Program, Fish Management Division, Olympia.

Sullivan, T.M., Butler, R.W., and Boyd, W.S. 2002. Seasonal distribution of waterbirds in relation to spawning Pacific herring, Clupea pallasi, in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia. Can. Field-Nat. 116: 366–370.

Sutherland, W.J. 1996. From individual behaviour to population ecology. Oxford University Press, New York.

Takekawa, J.Y., De La Cruz, S.E.W., Wilson, M.T., Palm, E.C., Yee, J., Nysewander, D.R., Evenson, J.R., Eadie, J.M., Esler, D., Boyd, W.S., and Ward, D.H. 2010. Breeding synchrony, sympatry, and nesting areas of Pacific coast surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata) in the Northern Boreal Forest. Stud. Avian Biol. In press.

Todd, C.S., Young, L.S., Owen, R.B., Jr., and Gramlich, F.J. 1982. Food habits of bald eagles in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 46(3): 636–645.

Trost, R.E. 2002. Pacific Flyway 2001–2002 Fall and Winter Waterfowl Survey Report. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Migratory Bird Management, Portland, Ore.

Vrugt, J.A., van Belle, J., and Bouten, W. 2007. Pareto front analysis of flight time and energy use in long-distance bird migration. J. Avian Biol. 38(4): 432–442.

Warnock, N., and Bishop, M.A. 1998. Spring stopover ecology of migrant western sandpipers. Condor, 100(3): 456–467.

Weber, T.P., Ens, B.J., and Houston, A.I. 1998. Optimal avian migration: a dynamic model of fuel stores and site use. Evol. Ecol. 12(4): 377–401.

Webster, M.S., Marra, P.P., Haig, S.M., Bensch, S., and Holmes, R.T. 2002. Links between worlds: unraveling migratory connectivity. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17(2): 76–83.

Willson, M.F., and Womble, J.N. 2006. Vertebrate exploitation of pulsed marine prey: a review and the example of spawning herring. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 16(2): 183–200.

Yerkes, T., Hobson, K.A., Wassenaar, L.I., Macleod, R., and Coluccy, J.M. 2008. Stable isotopes (δD, δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) reveal associations among geographic location and condition of Alaskan Northern Pintails. J. Wildl. Manage. 72(3): 715–725.